RenEU-able Energy Toolkit

• In Europe, the main types of renewable energy used include wind power, solar energy, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy, with wind and solar playing a particularly significant role in the region’s transition to sustainable energy.

Wind energy is harnessed by wind turbines, which convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electricity. It is highly efficient and has low operational costs, but it is dependent on wind conditions and can impact local landscapes. Solar energy, on the other hand, is captured through photovoltaic (PV) panels or solar thermal systems, converting sunlight into electricity or heat. It is abundant and sustainable but requires significant space and depends on sunlight availability. Northern and western European countries, such as Germany, Denmark, and the UK, are leaders in wind energy, particularly offshore wind farms in the North Sea. Meanwhile, southern European nations like Spain, Italy, and Greece have high solar energy adoption due to their sunny climates, making solar power a key contributor to their renewable energy mix.

Hydropower is a significant renewable energy source in Europe, generated by harnessing the movement of water to produce electricity. This is typically achieved through dams, which store and release water to turn turbines, or through run-of-river systems that use the natural flow of rivers. Hydropower is highly reliable, provides a stable energy supply, and has low emissions, but it can disrupt ecosystems and requires large infrastructure investments. Countries with mountainous terrain and abundant water resources, such as Norway, Switzerland, and Austria, rely heavily on hydropower, with Norway generating almost all its electricity from hydro. Other European nations, including France and Sweden, also have substantial hydropower capacity, making it a key contributor to the region’s renewable energy mix.

Biomass energy is a renewable energy source derived from organic materials such as wood, agricultural residues, and waste, which are burned or converted into biofuels to generate heat and electricity. It provides a stable energy supply and can utilize existing infrastructure, but its sustainability depends on responsible resource management, and it can still produce emissions. Biomass is widely used in Europe, particularly in countries with strong forestry and agricultural industries, such as Sweden, Finland, and Germany. These nations use biomass for district heating and power generation, often in combination with other renewables. The European Union promotes biomass as part of its energy transition, but concerns about deforestation and land use require careful regulation to ensure long-term sustainability.

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that harnesses heat from the Earth’s interior to generate electricity or provide direct heating. This is done through geothermal power plants, which use steam or hot water from underground reservoirs to drive turbines, or through ground-source heat pumps for heating buildings. Geothermal energy is highly reliable, operates independently of weather conditions, and has low emissions, but it requires specific geological conditions and high initial investment costs. In Europe, geothermal energy is most widely used in countries with significant underground heat resources, such as Iceland, which generates most of its electricity and heating from geothermal sources. Other countries, including Italy, Turkey, and France, also utilize geothermal energy, particularly in volcanic regions or areas with high geothermal activity.

• The European Union has set ambitious renewable energy targets and provides funding and incentives to support renewable energy projects, improve infrastructure, and ensure a fair transition for regions dependent on fossil fuels.
• EU member states implement their own renewable energy strategies while working towards a more integrated European energy grid

The origins of EU renewable energy policy date back to the 1990s when the European Union began prioritizing sustainability and energy security in response to growing environmental concerns and dependence on fossil fuel imports. The first major step was the 1997 White Paper on Renewable Energy, which set early voluntary targets for renewable energy development. This was followed by the 2001 Renewable Energy Directive, which aimed to increase the share of renewables in the energy mix. The 2009 revision of this directive introduced legally binding targets, requiring the EU to achieve 20% renewable energy by 2020. These policies laid the foundation for the European Green Deal and the Fit for 55 package, which now drive the EU’s ambitious goal of achieving climate neutrality by 2050 through a rapid expansion of renewable energy sources.

The EU has faced several setbacks in implementing its renewable energy policy, including regional disparities, infrastructure challenges, and political resistance. Some member states, particularly those reliant on coal or with weaker economies, have struggled to transition due to high upfront costs and economic dependency on fossil fuels. Grid infrastructure has also posed a challenge, as integrating intermittent renewables like wind and solar requires significant upgrades and cross-border cooperation, which has been slow. Additionally, bureaucratic hurdles and lengthy permit processes have delayed the rollout of new renewable projects. Political resistance, both from industries affected by the transition and from governments prioritizing short-term economic concerns, has also slowed progress. The 2022 energy crisis, driven by the war in Ukraine, further complicated the transition, forcing some countries to temporarily increase fossil fuel use to ensure energy security, despite long-term commitments to renewables.

EU member states have implemented various policies to support their renewable energy transitions while aligning with EU-wide goals. Germany’s Energiewende policy has driven its shift away from nuclear and coal, emphasizing renewable energy expansion through subsidies and grid modernization. Denmark’s Climate Act commits the country to a 70% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, supporting offshore wind expansion and sector-wide decarbonization. In essence, the EU sets the framework, provides funding, and ensures compliance, while member states create and implement their own policies to achieve renewable energy goals in ways that suit their specific economic and energy landscapes.

Today, EU renewable energy policy is evolving to address both climate goals and energy security concerns, particularly in the wake of geopolitical challenges like the Russia-Ukraine war, which highlighted the risks of fossil fuel dependence. Recent initiatives, such as the REPowerEU plan, aim to rapidly scale up renewables while reducing reliance on imported gas by diversifying supply chains and localizing energy production. Looking ahead, the EU is pushing for more flexible energy systems, greater digitalization, and advancements in energy storage to support the integration of intermittent renewables. As policies continue to evolve, Europe is positioning itself as a global leader in clean energy innovation, setting a precedent for other regions to follow in the path toward climate neutrality by 2050.

• Nuclear energy is a form of power generation that uses nuclear reactions, typically nuclear fission, to produce heat, which is then used to generate electricity in power plants.
• Nuclear energy is not considered renewable because it relies on finite uranium and other fissile materials; however, it is often classified as a low-carbon energy source.

Nuclear energy is a low-carbon but non-renewable energy source that generates electricity through nuclear fission, where atoms—typically uranium or plutonium—are split to release heat, which is used to produce steam that drives turbines. While nuclear power provides a stable and high-output energy supply, it is controversial due to concerns over radioactive waste, reactor safety, and nuclear proliferation risks. In the EU, France is the largest user, generating over 60% of its electricity from nuclear, supported by its long-standing Multiannual Energy Plan (PPE), which aims to modernize plants while slightly reducing reliance. Other key nuclear nations include Sweden, Finland, and Belgium, while Germany has recently phased out its nuclear plants as part of its Energiewende policy. At the EU level, nuclear energy remains divisive, with the EU Taxonomy for Sustainable Activities classifying it as a “transitional” green energy source, allowing for continued investment under strict conditions. Globally, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) oversees nuclear safety and non-proliferation efforts, while the Euratom Treaty governs nuclear regulations within the EU, ensuring high safety standards and research collaboration. Although nuclear energy has low carbon emissions and can support grid stability, risks such as potential accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima), radioactive waste disposal, and high decommissioning costs remain challenges. Looking ahead, interest in small modular reactors (SMRs) and fusion technology is growing, with some EU nations investing in next-generation designs to make nuclear safer, cheaper, and more flexible as part of the clean energy transition.